Everything about Governor-general totally explained
The term
Governor-General refers to a vice-regal representative of a Monarch in an independent realm. A Governor-General is a
governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.
Current uses
Today, the title Governor-General is used in the independent
Commonwealth realms (those Commonwealth countries which share as
monarch,
Queen Elizabeth II). The United Kingdom doesn't have a Governor-General.
In modern usage, the term "Governor-General" originated in those British
colonies which became self-governing
Dominions within the
British Empire (examples are
Australia,
Canada and
New Zealand). With the exception of
New Zealand, each of the previously constituent colonies of these federated colonies already had a
Governor, and the Crown's representative to the federated Dominion was therefore given the superior title of Governor-General. New Zealand was granted Dominion status in 1907, but as it had never been a federal state there was no pressing need to change the gubernatorial title. It wasn't until
28 June 1917 that
Earl of Liverpool was appointed the first Governor-
General of New Zealand. Another non-federal state,
Newfoundland, was a Dominion for 16 years with the Kings's representative retaining the title of
Governor throughout this time.
Since the 1950s, the title Governor-General has been given to all representatives of the Sovereign in independent Commonwealth realms. In these cases, the former office of colonial Governor was altered (sometimes for the same incumbent) to become Governor-General upon independence, as the nature of the office became an entirely independent constitutional representative of the monarch rather than a symbol of previous colonial rule. In these countries the Governor-General acts as the Monarch's representative, performing the ceremonial and constitutional functions of a Head of State.
The only other nation which uses the Governor-General designation is Iran which of course has no connection with Queen Elizabeth II or any of the countries which acknowledge her as monarch. In Iran, the provincial authority is headed by a Governor-General (
Persian: استاندار
ostāndār), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior.
British colonialism and the Governor-General
Until the
1920s, Governors-General were British subjects, appointed on the advice of the British Government, who acted as agents of the British Government in each Dominion, as well as being representatives of the monarch. As such they notionally held the prerogative powers of the monarch, and also held the executive power of the country to which they were assigned. The Governor-General could be instructed by the Colonial Secretary on the exercise of some of his functions and duties, such as the use or withholding of the
Royal Assent from legislation; history shows many examples of Governors-General using their prerogative and executive powers. The monarch could overrule any Governor-General, though this could often be cumbersome due to remoteness of the territories from London.
The Governor-General was also the head of the armed forces in his or her territory and, because of the Governor-General's control of the military, the post was as much a military appointment as a civil one. Indeed, until the late 20th century, the Governor-General's official attire was the
court dress,
Windsor uniform or other military uniform.
In some colonies, the title of the royal representative was never Governor-General. The King's representative in
New Zealand, for instance, was simply titled Governor (earlier, even Lieutenant-Governor, as in Canadian provinces, still lower in rank) until after the country became a
Dominion.
Modern Commonwealth
Independent Commonwealth realms
Following the
Imperial Conference, and subsequent issuing of the
Balfour Declaration in
1926, the role and responsibilities of the Governor-General began to shift, reflecting the increased independence of the
Dominions. As the sovereign came to be regarded as monarch of each territory independently, and, as such, advised only by the ministers of each country in regard to said country's national affairs (as opposed to a single British monarch ruling all the Dominions as a conglomerate and advised only by an imperial parliament), so too did the Governor-General become a direct representative of the national monarch only, who no longer answered to the British government. These concepts were entrenched in legislation with the enactment of the
Statute of Westminster in
1931, and governmental relations with the
United Kingdom were placed in the hands of a British
High Commissioner in each country.
In other words, the political reality of a self governing dominion within the British Empire with a governor-general answerable to the sovereign of Great Britain became clear. British interference in the dominion wasn't acceptable and independent country status was clearly displayed. Canada, Australia and New Zealand were clearly not controlled by the United Kingdom. The monarch of these countries (Elizabeth II) is in law
Queen of Canada,
Queen of Australia,
Queen of New Zealand and only acts on the advice of the ministers in each country and is in no way influenced by the British government. The monarch appoints a governor-general as a personal representative only on the advice of the Prime Minister of the realm. The Governor-General of Canada is appointed by the Queen of Canada on the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister. The Governor-General of Australia is appointed by the Queen of Australia on the advice of the Australian Prime Minister and the Governor-General of New Zealand is appointed by the Queen of New Zealand on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister. There is no legal relationship between any realm that acknowledges Elizabeth II as their monarch. They are all completely independent from one another.
Today, therefore, in former British colonies which are now independent
Commonwealth realms, the Governor-General is constitutionally the representative of the monarch in his or her state, and may exercise the
reserve powers of the monarch according to their own constitutional authority. The Governor-General, however, is still appointed by the monarch, and takes an
oath of allegiance to the monarch of their own country. Executive authority is also vested in the monarch, though it can be placed with the Governor-General on behalf of the sovereign of the independent realm.
Letters of Credence or
Letters of Recall are now sometimes received or issued in the name of the monarch, though in some countries, such as
Canada and
Australia, the Letters of Credence and Recall are issued in the name of the Governor-General alone.
At diplomatic functions where the Governor-General is present, the visiting diplomat or head of state toasts "The King" or "The Queen" of the relevant realm, not the Governor-General, with any reference to the Governor-General being subsidiary in later toasts if featuring at all, and will involve a toast to them by name, not office. (E.g., "Mr. and Mrs. Smith," not "Her Excellency, the Governor-General." Sometimes a toast might be made using name and office, for example, "Governor-General Smith.")
Except in rare cases, the Governor-General only acts in accordance with
constitutional convention and upon the
advice of the national
Prime Minister. The Governor-General is still the local representative of the sovereign, and performs the same duties as they carried out historically, though their role is almost purely ceremonial. Rare and controversial exceptions occurred in
1926, when
Canadian Governor General Lord Byng refused
Prime Minister Mackenzie King's request for a dissolution of parliament; and in
1975, when the Governor-General of Australia,
Sir John Kerr,
dismissed the Prime Minister,
Gough Whitlam. In principle, the Crown could overrule a Governor-General, but this hasn't happened in modern times.
The term
de facto head of state, though having no constitutional status, has been used informally in
Commonwealth realms to describe the role of a
governor-general.
The Governor-General is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; but some countries have also appointed prominent
sporting figures,
academics, members of the clergy, philanthropists, or figures from the news media to the office. The Governor-General is formally appointed by the Monarch, following the specific request of the
Prime Minister of the country concerned;
Papua New Guinea and the
Solomon Islands are the only realms that elect their Governors-General, in both cases by a parliamentary vote.
Traditionally, the Governor-General's official attire was military uniform, but this practice been abandoned except on occasions when it's appropriate to be worn. In
South Africa, the
Governors-General of the
Union nominated by the
Afrikaner Nationalist government chose not to wear uniform on any occasion. Most Governors-General continue to wear appropriate
medals on their clothing when required.
The Governor-General's official residence is usually called Government House. The
Governor-General of the Irish Free State resided in the then
Viceregal Lodge in
Phoenix Park,
Dublin, but the government of
Éamon de Valera sought to downgrade the office, and the last Governor-General,
Domhnall Ua Buachalla, didn't reside there. The office was abolished there in
1936.
In most Commonwealth realms, the flag of the Governor-General has been the standard pattern of a blue
field with the
Royal Crest (a lion standing on a crown) above a scroll with the name of the jurisdiction. In
Canada, however, this was replaced with a crowned lion clasping a maple leaf. In the
Solomon Islands, the scroll was replaced with a two-headed
frigate bird motif, while in
Fiji, the former Governor-General's flag featured a
whale's tooth.
Governors-General are accorded the style of
His/Her Excellency. This style is also extended to their spouses, whether female or male (for an example of the latter, see
Jean-Daniel Lafond).
In former colonies which are now
Commonwealth republics, the Governor-General and Monarch have been replaced by an elected or appointed (sometimes non-executive) Head of State.
Appointment
Until the 1920s, the Governors-General were British, and appointed on the advice of the British Government.
Following the changes to the structure of the Commonwealth in the late
1920s, in
1929, the Australian Prime Minister
James Scullin established the right of a
Dominion Prime Minister to advise the Monarch directly on the appointment of a Governor-General, by insisting that his choice (Sir
Isaac Isaacs, an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British Government. The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the Governor-General would be a citizen of the country concerned, and would be appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British Government. Since 1931 as each former Dominion has
patriated its constitution from the UK, the convention has become law—no government of any realm can advise the Monarch on any matter pertaining to another realm, including the appointment of a Governor-General; today a country's Governor-General is appointed by the Sovereign based solely on the advice of the prime minister of the country concerned.
Commonwealth countries with Governors General
Clicking on the country above will take you the relevant Governor-General article.
Other attributes
Different realms have different constitutional arrangements governing who acts in place of the Governor-General in the event of his or her death, resignation, or incapacity.
- In Australia, the senior state governor is usually delegated as "Administrator of the Commonwealth" to perform the necessary official functions, pending a decision by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia about a permanent replacement as Governor-General. The Administrator has usually been the senior Governor of the Australian states. Each state governor holds what is known as a dormant commission.
In Canada, Jamaica, and New Zealand, it's the Chief Justice.
In Papua New Guinea, it's the Speaker of the House.
Many Caribbean countries have a specific office of "Deputy Governor-General".
Former British colonies
The title has been used in many British colonial entities that either no longer exist or are now independent countries.
In the Americas
The Federation of the West Indies (Antigua, Barbados, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Turks and Caicos Islands), less commonly referred to as the British Caribbean Federation, had a single governor-general during its short existence, 3 January 1958–31 May 1962: Governor-General Patrick George Thomas Buchan-Hepburn, Baron Hailes (b. 1901–d. 1974).
In Asia
British India (the present India, Pakistan and Bangladesh and till 1937 Burma, the present Myanmar)—see also Viceroy
The Dominon of Ceylon (present Sri Lanka) (1948-1972)
In Africa
1 August 1953–31 December 1963 The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland also called the Central African Federation) comprising Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now Malawi).
Sudan as Anglo-Egyptian Sudan between 1899 and 1 January 1956.
Nigeria until independence on 1 October 1960.
Former Commonwealth realms
Most Commonwealth countries that are now republics, with the President as head of state, were originally Commonwealth realms, with Governors-General. Some became parliamentary republics, like India, where the presidency is a ceremonial post, similar that of the British monarch, while others, like Ghana, adopted a presidential system like the United States. Australia held a referendum on becoming a parliamentary republic in 1999, but this was rejected.
The current governments of Barbados and Jamaica while having announced plans to hold referendums on becoming republics (in each case with a non-executive President replacing the Queen as head of state, as occurred in Trinidad and Tobago in 1976), have not proceeded any further. There can be no way of knowing whether the necessary referendums to enable appropriate changes would be approved by voters. In Australia, a referendum to change the country into a republic was soundly defeated in 1999.
In Africa
Gambia, two incumbents:
Ghana:
- 6 March 1957–24 June 1957 Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke (b. 1898–d. 1962), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 24 June 1957–1 July 1960 William Francis Hare, Earl of Listowel (b. 1906–d. 1997); the country became the first in Africa to become a republic within the Commonwealth, with Kwame Nkrumah, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Kenya: 12 December 1963–12 December 1964 Malcolm John MacDonald (b. 1901–d. 1981), formerly the last colonial Governor; the country became a republic with Jomo Kenyatta, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Malawi: 6 July 1964–6 July 1966 Sir Glyn Smallwood Jones (b. 1908–d. 1992), formerly the last colonial Governor (until 1963 of "Nyasaland") the country became a republic with Kamuzu Banda, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Mauritius: Sir John Shaw Rennie (12 March–3 September 1968) formerly the last colonial Governor. The country became a republic on 12 March 1992 with the last Governor General Veerasamy Ringadoo as the first ceremonial President.
Nigeria:
Sierra Leone (See also Governor-General of Sierra Leone):
South Africa from 31 May 1910 when Cape, Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal united as a dominion (Union of South Africa) until the 31 May 1961 declaration of the Republic of South Africa. The last Governor-General of the Union of South Africa, Charles Robberts Swart, became the first State President of South Africa.
Tanganyika (now Tanzania): 9 December 1961–9 December 1962 Sir Richard Gordon Turnbull (b. 1909–d. 1998), formerly the last colonial Governor; the country became a republic with Julius Nyerere, formerly Prime Minister, as executive President.
Uganda: 9 October 1962–9 October 1963 Sir Walter Fleming Coutts (b. 1912–d. 1988), formerly the last colonial Governor; the country became a republic with Frederick Mutesa, Kabaka of Buganda, as ceremonial President.
In Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), a unique situation arose following the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965, unrecognised by the United Kingdom. The Rhodesian Front government of Ian Smith recognised Queen Elizabeth II as "Queen of Rhodesia", but refused to recognise the authority of her Governor Sir Humphrey Gibbs, whose duties were performed by an Officer Administering the Government, Clifford Dupont (b. 1905–d. 1978). Dupont served in the post until 2 March 1970, when Rhodesia was declared a republic (an act also unrecognised internationally) and he became President. The country became an independent republic within the Commonwealth as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.
Zambia and the Seychelles became republics within the Commonwealth on independence.
In the Americas
Guyana:
Trinidad and Tobago:
Dominica became a republic on independence in 1978, with a ceremonial President as head of state.
In Asia
India
Pakistan
Ceylon (now Sri Lanka):
In Europe
Ireland Governor-General of the Irish Free State dominion 6 December 1922 until 29 December 1937.
Malta:
Cyprus became a republic on independence.
In Oceania
Fiji:
Other colonial and similar usages
Belgian
Belgian Congo;
Ruanda-Urundi
French
The equivalent word in French is gouverneur général, used in the following colonies:
From 1887 to 1945 the French appointed a Governor-General to govern French Indo-China (now Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia); the function of High commissioner in the Pacific Ocean, from 22 March 1907 held by the Governors of New Caledonia, was used to coordinate that colony, the other French Settlements in Oceania and the governors-general of French Indochina and the Resident commissioners of the New Hebrides and the Residents of Wallis and Futuna were subordinated to him.
From 1699–1947, the French appointed a Governor-General to administer French India (including Pondichéry).
Governors-general of the Mascarene Islands (under control of the chartered Compagnie des Indes to 14 July 1767) from 4 June 1735 (succeeding to governors), and after its split-up of Mauritius (Réunion and the Seychelles got lower-styled Commandants or Governors), till 25 September 1803
Haiti January 1714 - 31 December 1803; last incumbent Jean-Jacques Dessalines shortly maintained the title after the January I, 1804 independence before proclaiming himself 'emperor' Jacques I
Since its creation on 16 June 1895 in French West Africa (AOF), until 4 April 1957; the last stayed on as first of two High commissioners
Madagascar
From 28 June 1908 (previously it had a Commissaire général, for example Commissioner general) to 4 April 1957 (the last stayed on as first of three High commissioners) in French Equatorial Africa (AEF); during several periods he also acted as Governor of the constitutive colony Congo Brazzaville.
Furthermore, in Napoleonic Europe successive French Governors-general were appointed by Napoleon I in:
the German states of Brandenburg (various other got 'mere' Governors), two incumbents during the 27 October 1806 - 10 December 1808 French occupation
Province of Courland under the French occupation (from 1 August 1812, Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and District of Pilten nominally re-established under joint French-Saxon protectorate 8 October 1812 - 20 December 1812) : Jacques David Martin, baron de Campredon (b. 1761 - d. 1837)
Parma and Piacenza under occupation, (after a Commissioner) 15 February 1804 - 23 July 1808, later annexed as département under a Prefect of Taro
principality of Piombino May 1806 - 1811 : Adolphe Beauvais (d. 1811)
annexed Tuscany, two incumbents, over prefects for Arno, Méditerranée [Mediterranean] and Ombrone:
- May 1808 - 3 March 1809 Jacques François de Boussay, baron de Menou (b. 1750 - d. 1810)
- 3 March 1809 - 1 February 1814 Elisa Baciocchi Bonaparte (with courtesy style of Grand Duchess of Tuscany) (b. 1777 - d. 1820)
the Illyrian provinces (comprising present Croatia, Slovenia and even adjacent parts of Austria and Italy), annexed as part of the French Empire proper, 14 October 1809 - August 1813
Netherlands
From 1691 to 1948 the Dutch appointed a Gouverneur-generaal ("Governor-General") to govern the Netherlands East Indies, now Indonesia.
While in the Caribbean, various other titles were used, Curaçao had three Governors-General between 1816 and 1820:
1816–1819 Albert Kikkert
1819–1820 Petrus Bernardus van Starkenborgh
1820 Isaäk Johannes Rammelman Elsevier
Spanish
From 21 November 1564 the Spanish colony Islas Filipinas had a Governor-general, subordinated to the viceroyalty of New Spain (in Mexico) to 1821.
Portuguese
The equivalent word in Portuguese is Governador-Geral, but this style was only used in a few major colonies, other colonies lower titles, mainly Governador (Governor) or Captain-major, prevailed
In the overseas province of Portuguese India (Estado da Índia, capital Goa) the style was changed repeatedly for another, mostly Viceroy, or a commission
In Brazil, after a few Governors, from 1578 till its promotion on 13 Jul 1714 to Viceroyalty
in Africa, from 1837 Portugal appointed a Governor-general to govern the colony of Portuguese West Africa (later Angola), and another in Mozambique (Portuguese East Africa); both offices were restyled in full High Commissioner and Governor-general in 1921, and both existed until their 1975 decolonisation.
U.S.
From 1905 to 1935 the Philippines (since 13 August 1898 a U.S territory; first under three Military and two ordinary Governors) was administered by a series of Governors General appointed by the United States.
Other Western usages
Governor-General in the Swedish Realm
From 1636 to 1815, the Governors-General of Sweden typically were appointed for the Swedish Dominions on the eastern side of the Baltic and in northern Germany, but occasionally also for Scania.
From 1809 to 1918 there were Russian Governor-General of Finland in the Grand Duchy of Finland; Governor-Generals of Poland in Congress Poland and in various other Governorates-General.
From 1939 to 1944, during the German occupation of Poland, part of the country was designated the General Government and the Nazi official Hans Frank had the title Governor-General (Generalgouverneur für die besetzten polnischen Gebiete).
the kingdom of Saxony had a Governor general twice, under Allied control after French emperor Napoleon I's defeat:
- 28 October 1813 - 8 November 1814 Prince Nikolay Grigorievich Repnin-Volkonsky (Russia) (b. 1778 - d. 1845)
- 8 November 1814 - 8 June 1815 Eberhard Friedrich Christoph Ludwig, Freiherr von der Recke (Prussia) (b. 1744 - d. 1826)
during the occupation of Serbia by Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, the former (Habsburg empire) appointed three consecutive governors-general:
- 1 January 1916 - July 1916 Johan Ulrich Graf von Salis-Seewis (b. 1862 - d. 1940)
- July 1916 - October 1918 Adolf Freiherr von Rhemen zu Barensfeld (b. 1855 - d. 1932)
- October 1918 - 1 November 1918 Herman Freiherr Kövess von Kövessháza (b. 1854 - d. 1924; a former military commander in northern Serbia)
Asian counterparts
From 1644 to 1911, in Qing Dynasty China, a Governor General or zongdu (Chinese: 总督) was the highest official of joint military and civil affairs in one or several provinces (alternately translated as Viceroy)
Imperial Japan:
Islamic Republic of Iran
- The provincial authority is headed by a Governor-General (Persian: استاندار ostāndār).
Note
In Canada the title "Governor General" is always used unhyphenated. In Australia and New Zealand, the term is always hyphenated.
Further Information
Get more info on 'Governor-general'.
|
External Link Exchanges
Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:
<a href="http://governor-general.totallyexplained.com">Governor-General Totally Explained</a>
Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
